Fidel Castro of Cuba (1959 - 2016)

Important Acronyms:

ORI (Integrated Revolutionary Organizations)

• formed by DR, PSP, J26 Movement

PSP (Partido Socialista Popular)

• communist party

DR (Directorio Revolucionario)

• successor to DRE

DRE (Directorio Revolucionario Estudiantil)

• armed group est. to resist Batista’s repression

Timeline

[1895] Feb: Jose Marti begins Second War of Independence
[1898] Jul: USA defeats Spain in Spanish-American War, Cuba ceded to USA
[1901] Mar: US Platt Amendment
[1902] May: Cuba independence but under US ‘protection’
[1927] May: Machado’s dictatorship
[1933] 

• Aug: Machado flees — de Cespedes becomes president
• Sep: Sergeant’s coup takes place led by Batista ; Grau becomes president
  [1934] Jan: Batista’s increases power ; Grau steps down ; opposition repressed
  [1940]
• Aug: new constitution
• Oct: Batista is elected president
  [1944] Jun: Batista succeeded by Grau
  [1952] Mar: Batista coup
  [1953]
• Jul: Castro launched Moncada Attack ; publishes Manifesto of the Revolutionaries of Moncada to the Nation
• Oct: Castro’s ‘History will absolve me’ speech
  [1955] Jul: Castro goes to Mexico ; July 26 Movement is formed
  [1956]
• Mar: Castro writes letter announcing July 26 Movement
• Dec: Castro’s band of revolutionaries arrives in Cuba ; Guerilla war begins in Sierra Maestra mountains
  [1958]
• May: Batista’s unsuccessful offensive
• Jul: Caracas Pact; communist PSP begins cooperation with July 26 Movement
• Dec: Batista resigns
  [1959] 
• Jan: Castro enters Havana
• Feb: Castro becomes prime minister
• Mar: nationalisation of public utilities ; Castro’s ‘Proclamation against discrimination’
• Apr: Castro suspends elections
• May/Jun: Agrarian Reform Act
  [1960]
• Feb: trade deal is signed with USSR
• Apr: Soviet crude oil is delivered
• May: US oil companies in Cuba refuse to refine Soviet oil
• Jun: Castro nationalized US refineries
• Jul: US reduces quota for Cuban sugar ; USSR buys surplus
• Aug: main US businesses in Cuba nationalized ; Federation of Cuban Women (FMC) est.
• Sep: Castro makes ‘First declaration of Havana’ speech
• Nov: first US trade embargo on exports to Cuba
  [1961]
• Feb: Guevara becomes minister of industries
• Apr: Castro proclaims Cuba’s socialist revolution ; Bay of Pigs incident ; ‘Year of Education’ mass literacy campaign begins
• Jul: July 26 Movement, communist PSP and Directorio Revolucionario merge to form Integrated Revolutionary Organizations
  [1962]
• Feb: Kennedy announces full US embargo on exports to Cuba
• Mar: Escalante faction of communist PSP removed from positions
• Oct: Cuban Missile Crisis
  [1963] Jul: ORI becomes United Party of the Socialist Revolution (PURS)
  [1965] Oct: PURS becomes Communist Party of Cuba (PCC)
  [1969] Nov: ‘Year of Decisive Endeavour’ launched
  [1970] Jul: 10 million tonne campaign for sugar
  [1972] Jul: Cuba becomes full member of Comecon
  [1975] Mar: Family Code
  [1976]
• Feb: new constitution establishing Poder Popular approved
• Dec: first meeting of new National Assembly ; Castro becomes president
  [1977] Centro Nacional de Educación Sexual (CNES) is founded
  [1979] Same-sex relations decriminalized
  [1986] Apr: ‘Rectification campaign’
  [1989] Apr: Gorbachev visits Cuba
  [1990] Jan: Special Period begins
  [1991] Dec: USSR collapses
  [1992]
• Jul: constitution amended
• Sep: Aldana sacked ; purge of reformists from PCC
  [1993] 
• Jan: US embargo on Cuba tightened ; Cuba introduced market reforms
• Feb: first direct election  to National Assembly
  [1996] Feb: US trade embargo made permanent
  [1998] Jan: Pope John Paul II visits Cuba
  [2002] Jun: National Assembly amends constitution to make socialist system of government permanent
  [2008] Feb: Fidel Castro announces his resignation ; Raul takes over
  [2010] State provides free SRS

Paper 2 - Auth States

Emergence

Conditions	Methods	Rise to Power & Legitimacy
anti-American sentiment due to: - history of US control - Platt Amendment 1901 Batista’s coup - repression - economy weak - poor social benefits for workers - many starved - high unemployment rates - dependence on US sugar purchasing - corruption, fraudulent elections	persuasion - appeal to peasants coercion  role of leaders  - allowed him to become the head of the revolutionaries - charismatic and appealed to US and Cuban people ideology - saw manifestos to be essential - “Manifesto of the Revolutionaries of Moncada to the Nation” July 1953 — communicated ideas of the revolution in independence, social justice - “History will absolve me” Oct 16 1953 — policies of revolution such as agrarian reform, modernization, and nationalisation - pragmatic approach to political ideology - inspiration from nationalism and cubiana - cubiana: modernization and growth with true sovereignty ; “Cuba for Cubans” force - continued military opposition to Batista’s rule through guerilla attack propaganda - “propaganda must not be abandoned for a minute for it is the soul of every struggle” - usage of manifestos - Radio Rebelde after 1958 shared outlines of Castro’s policies - Herbert Matthews Mainly Castro’s advertisement of his ideology through propaganda that attracted people, which was supported by his strong leadership that gave him control of the revolution.	Moncada Attack 1953 - ‘history will absolve me’ July 26 Movement 1955 - release from prison, began forming revolution Mexico 1955-6 - moved to Mexico to plot and raise money - meets Che Guevara Sierra Maestra (Dec 1956) - attacked by Batista upon arrival, leaving 1/16 of original forces - beginning of guerilla warfare - Batista kills local peasants which made Catro more appealing - Herbert Matthews reports Castro’s success Urban Resistance 1967-8 - gathering politicians and business people to form a civic revolutionary front to oppose Batista - 1958, communists PSP gives support to Castro  - final struggle against Batista declared in “Total War Against Tyranny” manifesto Final Stage - Feb 1958, Castro’s July 26 movement declares war on property and production to isolate Batista from economic elite support - mid-1958, more guerrilla fronts opened up - July 1958, Pact of Caracas recognized Castro as main leader of anti-Batista movement Counter-Offensive - Aug 1958, gov’t offensive fails, and Castro sees more success in taking over towns - communist PSP leaders take up positions in Castro’s movement - Batista’s increased repression provokes uprisings - end of 1958, guerilla army hit 50,000 from just 5000 in mid-1958 - Batista flees, Castro speech of “The Revolution begins now” - Jan 8 1959, Castro enters Havana

Consolidation (1959-1975)

Method	Usage
legal	[Jan 1959] Installation of government & Office of Revolutionary Plans and Coordination (OPRC) - committee of close advisors (OPRC) - Moderate Judge Manuel Urrutia becomes President - Jose Miro Cardona becomes PM [Feb 1959] Castro becomes PM [Apr 1959] suspension of elections [May 1959] National Institute of Agrarian Reform est. (INRA) - absorbs OPRC  - becomes effective gov’t 1961 ORI est. (integrated revolutionary organizations) 1962 ORI reorganized to get rid of PSP influence 1963 ORI → PURS 1965 formation of PCC [Dec 1960] power to appoint judges - handful of friends in cabinet holding all legislative and executive power
force	broadcasted trials of execution of Batista’s political supporters - totalling 100s - senior police and torturers [June 1959] removal of Urrutia after opposition to growing communist influence - moderates and liberals forced out of office by 1960 Oct. 19 1959 governor Huber Matos resigned in protest of growing communist influence - put on trial for ‘rebellion’ - used as excuse to est. armed militias as part of revolutionary power structure [April 1961] Bay of pigs leads to mass arrest of suspected ‘counter-revolutionaries’ - 3500 in Havana alone
charismatic leadership	push for unity of July 26 Movement & PSP balance - Nov. 1959 Confederation of Cuban Workers election ; Castro pushes for balance in leaders
propaganda	control of the press through seizure by communist trade unions

from 1968 — Castro follows more USSR development

• state structures and institutions inspired by Soviet

• 1972, committee of eight took over Castro’s functions

• shift from individual to collective responsibility

• more democratic and politically stable

• communist party enlarged and reorganized

therefore: Castro loses some authority but remains stable despite controversy over economic policies

July 26 Movement v. PSP balance

• July 26 Movement was a guerilla army so Castro needed communist PSP’s political experience

• experience with party politics and organizing mass movements

• [July 1961] July 26 Movement, DR, and PSP form Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (ORI)

• PSP initially dominated ORI due to Organization Secretary’s pref for old PSP comrades

• [Mar 1962] removed Escalante for sectarianism

• restructuring of ORI, removing half of its members, mostly PSP faction

• Integrated Revolutionary Office becomes United Party of Socialist Revolution

• 1963 ORI → PURS

• United Party of Socialist Revolution becomes COmmunist Party of Cuba 

• 1965 PURS → PCC

• consolidates revolutionary power of Cuba 

Mass Organizations

• Federation of University Students

• election in Oct 1959

• Castro’s intervention lets PSP candidate win

• gives control of university students in favor of unity between communists and non-communists in the J26 movement

• Confederation of Cuban Workers

• Nov 1959 election

• J26 Movement candidates had majority but Castro pushed for unity with communists

• 1970 opposition emerged

• demonstrated by poor productivity

• speech admitting Castro’s mistakes and given greater delegation of powers and democratic methods of consultation

Treatment of Opposition
	Cause	Extent	Response
Batista supporters (1959)	didn’t support Castro bruh	great — against his political ideology	mass executed if having large roles
Moderates and Liberals (1959 - 1960)	uncomfortable with growing influence of communists	public criticism of influence	removed from office and roles of political power
PSP members (1961-62)	not sharing Castro’s stance	limited political opposition / internal struggle in office	mostly removed from important organs
counter-revolutionaries (1960 - 66)	social and economic interests threatened	counter-revolutionary guerrilla warfare supported by USA	defeated by 1966 despite 1000s of deaths [April 1961] Bay of pigs leads to mass arrest of suspected ‘counter-revolutionaries’ - 3500 in Havana alone
traditionalist communists of PCC (1965-68)	Castro’s criticism of USSR peaceful coexistence and revolution in developing countries	factionalism	[Feb 1968] many leaders put on trial for factionalism - gives more power to Castro

by the mid-1960s most of Castro’s oppositions are defeated, so he begins to consider a more liberal approach

Maintenance (1975-2000s)

Method	Usage
legal	1976 new constitution introducing Poder Popular mid-1970s — System of Direction and Planning of the Economy est. - decentralized planning and management - material incentive to encourage greater productivity - plan set up in 1985 for economic growth - Castro didn’t like this and removed the board director  - Castro sets up new committee diffusal of reformist opposition - 1992 amendments to constitution to make Poder Popular more real 1996 Special Period ends so 2003 partial return to anti-market centralization’ - ‘re-moralization’ of economic life - moves against potential opponents, dissidents, human rights activists - Minister for Economics and Planning & Minister of Finance replaced - new ministers favored centralized political control of economy and society 1960, est. Committees for Defense of Revolution in every district to find counter-revolutionaries
force	June 1989 Ochoa Affair - senior military and intelligence figures including General Arnaldo Ochoa arrested for corruption and drug smuggling - tried by military tribunal and condemned to death, few others sentences to 20-30 years - speculation that Ochoa and others were planning coup in favor of Gorbachev-style reforms - causes serious divisions 1992 Purge & Aldana - Special Period in Time of Peace announced by Castro at end of 1990 - opposition led by Carlos Aldana  - reformists in PCC and Young Communist Party who admired Gorbachev’s policies - Sept 1992 Aldana sacked and Castro begins purge of reformists mass emigrations/exile of Batista supporters, liberals, etc. throughout 1960s, then 1980 and 1994
charismatic leadership	1986 ‘Rectification of errors and negative trends’ - against corruption and economic issues - Castro admits errors and criticizes economic liberalisation in 1970s - criticism of bureaucrats and technocrats that enriched themselves in 1970s - campaign pandered to dissatisfaction amongst workers angry about shortages - demonstrates his leadership and increases prestige contributes to running many mass organizations Castroism / Fidelismo - not obvious cult of personality - great charisma, orator - confidence in his heroism and personal ethics
propaganda	mythology of ‘Revolutionary Cuba under  siege’ guides mass mobilizations, political offensives, and militarization

Usage of Mass Organizations

• Unions (mainly Confederation of Cuban Workers)

• union of 19 unions w/ national congress and local meetings

• Castro participates to answer questions and explain issues

• right to meet 2x a year to discuss plans

• can reject management proposal, decide production norms and rates, ratify new proposals

• close participation with PCC

• PCC

• promotes ‘development of socialist consciousness and society’

• society above individual

• nationwide discussions before party congresses demonstrate sovereignty of Cuban citizens

Treatment of Opposition
	Cause	Extent	Response
reformists (1989)	senior military officials preferred Gorbachev’s reformism	alleged planning of coup	execution / jailing
reformists (1992)	PCC and Young Communist Party members preferred Gorbachev’s reformism	political opposition	Aldana sacked ; reformists purged
other minor opposition (1996)	human rights, reformism, political opposition, dissidents	varying	1996 move against by Castro removal of ministers

Foreign Policy (pg. 205-207)
Summary
commitment to end US control over Cuba contributed to support for his movement immediately in 1959 LA and Caribbean - 1962, Kennedy was informed by CIA Director that if Castro maintained an independent Cuba, most of LA would fall - thus, Castro’s policy promoted revolutions in the region - giving financial and logistical aid, military training - 1963, Castro speech clarifies that spreading Cuban revolutionary ideas would increase Cuba’s security Bolivia (1966-67) - Nov 1966 Che Guevara and other Cuban fighters go to Bolivia to support ELN guerillas in struggle against military dictatorship formed by US-supported coup - insurgence only lasted from March to October 1967 and Che was captured by CIA commandos and Bolivian special forces trained by US - murdered by Bolivian Ranger with CIA approval on October 9 - martyrdom: Guevara becomes worldwide symbol of resistance for young people, making Castro’s regime more popular Africa - Castro also pursued active foreign policy in Africa as early as 1961 - helping Algerians v. France - after 1963 independence, sent a medical mission to est. national free health for Algerians - focus on southern Africa, recognized by Nelson Mandela - global recognition - Cuban pride The Congo - mid-1960s, civil war in Congo w/ US support for 1000 mercs - Dec 1964 Guevara went on a 3-month trip to Africa - upon return, called for black volunteers to go help rebels - Apr 1965 Che and 120 volunteers enter Congo - ends in failure Angola & S. Africa - most success after 1966 response to rebel request for help in Guinea-Bissau - doctors and military instructors stay until independence in 1974 - 1975, big commitment in Angola after civil war breaks out between 3 independence movements - S. Africa and US wanted to stop the Soviet-backed People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola - S.Africa to ensure control of SW Africa between Angola and S.Africa - US persuaded S.Africa to send troops to help other groups - Castro thus decides to support MPLA - Castro sends troops before S.African troops capture capital - 1976, total commitment of 25,000 troops - jeopardizes relations with Organization of American States that just lifted 1964 sanctions - Castro saw intervention as helping weaken S.African apartheid system - forms sympathetic government across border - MPLA holds most of Angola - Cuban troops stay until 1970s as S.African troops continue attack - US President Carters offers normal relations with Cuba and end of Sanctions if Cuban troops withdrew - Castro says that Cuba will not be bullied, bribed, or blackmailed - Reagen withdraws offers after becoming president in 1981 - actions step up by Reagen, major offensive in 1987 by S.Africa - US ensures no sanctions imposed and no aid given to Angola - Cuban troops prevent it, and sends more troops and modern weaponry  - S.African troops pushed back and threatens to cross border - US agrees to stop supporting S.Africa usage of Angolan rebels and Cuba withdraws Humanitarian Aid - primary & secondary school teachers - doctors and nurses - construction workers and technicians - aid programme in Angola - 1977 — 3350 cuban volunteer workers - 2010 — Cuba was first to send help to Haiti after earthquake - scholarships for people to go study in Cuba that contribute to support and pride in Cuban society - foreign policy causes them to get humanitarian aid USSR - after offending US, Cuba gets closer to USSR - 1960 Cuba increasing sales of sugar to Cuba & USSR gives oil to Cuba
Successes	Failure
- much pride in Cuban society - source of support by Cuban people - shows that Cuba is just and legitimate against power of the US	- often offends US - dependence on USSR which is bad after USSR collapse

Aims and Results of Policy (SOCIAL POLITICAL ECONOMIC)

Early Years 1959-68	Purpose	Practice	Result
Agriculture	benefit supporters in poorest section of Cuban society	March 1959 minimum wage introduced for sugar-cane cutters May 1959 details for plans of Agrarian Reform Act - estates broken up to small units - 40% expropriated and divided into small plots for landless plantations workers, farmers, peasants - larger ranches to be run as co-operatives call for moral incentive and voluntary labor	moderate land reform but heavily opposed by landowners US companies angered, complained that compensation was inadequate July 1960 US cut sugar quota, so Castro responded by nationalizing all major US properties Nov 1960 US bans exports to Cuba USSR agrees to purchase Cuban sugar at favourable rate of 6 cents per pound until 1970 enables long-term planning with soviet support but also causes reliance on sugar employment increases but production drops as material incentives are removed, so Castro calls for mass mobilization for
Industry	benefit to other poor group: non-agricultural workers development via rapid industrialization - due to decline of Cuban economy threatening social policies	real wages of non-agricultural workers rose sharply rent for cheaper urban dwellings reduced by up to 50% March 1959 utility companies were taken over and prices reduced April 1960 after USSR minister of foreign trade Mikoyan’s visit in Feb and agreements were signed, 300,000 tonnes of Soviet oil were delivered to Cuba June 1960, foreign oil refineries refused to refine it so Castro nationalized them  Oct. 13 1960, 382 Cuban firms (sugar mills, banks, industries) were socialized (bringing private companies into public control) - following speech of “First declaration of Havan:	est. of a command economy to ensure economic growth pragmatic approach to ensure proper economic planning 1968 economic crisis as USSR reducing supplies of fuel and gas
Success	Agriculture Agricultural diversification attempts failed and created more problems 1963 was worst since WW2  1964, USSR agreements helped stabilize Industry 1962 collapse of economy - govt froze prices, rationing brought - fair distribution of food contrasted with inequalities otherwhere so looked good 1963 further decline as rapid industrialization and sugar failure = debt crisis - money incentives replaced with moral but ineffective - US embargo supplied raw materials and machine parts for consumer goods but no alt source - production fell 1.5%

Soviet Camp 1968-90	Purpose	Practice	Result
Agriculture		1960-90  production of sugar grew 40% 1980s 375,000 employed 1966 new deal with USSR  - Cuba provide 5 million tonnes of sugar with guaranteed price from 1968-9 soviet funds to modernize but only 3.7 million tonnes 1970 battle for sugar to get 10 million tonnes	voluntary labor became compulsory and moral incentive caused more dissatisfaction, then falling yields battle for sugar failed to reach target but got 8.5 million tonnes (double normal yield) improved production maintained during 1970s 1970 soaring price of sugar gave Castro’s government ability to take new policies 1980, surplus past stage quota could be sold in free market 1986, new economic problems led to ‘rectification campaign’ - closed new markets
Industry		1968 dependent on Soviet Union 1970 economy in debt to Soviet bloc July 1972 joined Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) — economic trading union of communist states Dec 1972 Castro signs a 15-year economic agreement with Brezhnev to increase Soviet subsidy to Cuban economy - increasing paid for sugar - debt delay	dependence so Castro moves closer to USSR Cuban economy increasingly reorganized along soviet lines 1986, Castro responds by saying economic planning was not comprehensive and launches ‘rectification’ - move back to centralized command economy 1989 East European communist regimes begin to collapse - economic assistance cancelled - subsidies reduced and then cancelled
Success	Agriculture probs continued production in cattle and forestry fell fishing declined despite being best performer 1970, economy in crisis 1982, trade were 30% lower in 1975 due to lower sugar price Industry new management system from 1970-80 makes more autonomy - increased productivity and overtime due to material incentive economy prospered  - annual growth 4.1% from 1975-85 significant growth in 1980s - debt gew however which caused recession to start

Special Period and Beyond 1990-Present	Purpose	Practice	Result
Agriculture	drop in financing from the USSR from 3 billion in 1989 to nothing in 1992 (collapsed)	Oct 1990, food programme encourages local production funds allocated to research and development in biotech recycling campaign austerity mass mobilization of volunteers development of tourism in place of sugar March 1990, farmers urged to use draught animals and food rationing - 63% of food from USSR and East Europe so alt food supplies needed - no money to buy food from west so food production needed to be increased 1993 further measures were needed - smaller agricultural co-operatives replaced state farms	1959 Cuba’s economy dependent on USSR - less affect by world prices - however collapse from 1989-91 means economic problems - end of subsidies = vulnerable to world market and fluctuation end of sugar dependence after Special Period end in 1996 - 2002 — half of 156 sugar mills closed, half of land given to other crops
Industry	collapse of USSR removed role of Soviet bloc in keeping Cuban economy afloat	1976 productivity targets largely not met, economic growth was slow dependence on USSR  - 80% machinery from USSR - USSR purchase most of sugar, citrus, nickel - cheap soviet oil fueled Cuba, but dropped in 1990s - higher prices promotion of tourism to become largest earner of foreign industry	1989 to 1993  GDP fell 35%, exports fall 79% 2000 exports only 43% of pre-1989 years March 1990  water and electrical cut off for short periods Aug 1990 oil and gas cut 50%, electricity down 10% Poder Popular — economic crisis was not resolved at expense of workers so not so much conflict impact of Helms-Burton Act 1996 permanent sanction against any countries trading w/ Cuba EU opposed this, so EU countries continued trading
Success	Agriculture 1990 initial economic disaster government measrues to improve but still many shortages 1993, free market restored with good results many areas of production remained weak permaculture from Australia — sustainable Industry import capacity dropped 70% from 1989 to 1992 - drop in sugar earnings and external financing maintained social program of free education and health 1993 economy begin to grow, largely due to helpf rom Venezuela president

Social POlicies:

LIVING STNADARDS

• redistribution of wealth and improvement of living standards

• fair distribution via rationing

• jobs for all that can work

• interference in prices of basic goods

• outstanding improvement in living standards for rural poor

HEALTHCARE

• improved on free health system set by Batista

HOUSING

• after revolution, limited housing improvement due to inefficiency in construction

Women & Minority	Purpose	Practice	Result
Women		easier divorce free abortions subsidised family planning guaranteed equal pay Women’s Commision on Employment - monitors hiring and workplace discrimination increase in female university students Federation of Cuban WOmen est. 1960 changing sexist opinions and behaviour  egalitarian Family COde 1975 - equalise status of spouses less than equal participation but increasing	women in labor force doubled from 1950-1980 strong commitment in gender equality
Black people		1959 Proclamatiin against discrimination - repealed prev. laws that enforced discrimination - did not support separatism and Black societies of intellectuals were closed disproportionate white representation 1975

Extent of Authoritarian Control

1976 Poder Popular (People’s Power)

• municipal, provincial, federal assembly for democratic decision making

• nomination of candidates for representation

• didn’t give power to people but gave some representations

1992 constitution

• modified 1976 constitution to allow \direct vote in elections for members in National Assembly

Paper 3 - Political Developments in LA

Causes of The Cuban Revolution 

• see paper 2 emergence

Rule of Fidel Castro 

Cuban nationalism 

policies (SPEC)

• see paper 2 policies

treatment of opposition 

• paper 2 

success and failures

• paper 2

impact on the region

Role as Populist Leader

rise to power 

• paper 2

legitimacy

ideology 

policies (SPEC)

• paper 2

treatment of opposition 

• paper 2

success and failures 

• paper 2

Rise of military dictatorship in [1 country] 

reasons for their rise 

policies 

economic 

social 

repression/treatment of the opposition 

ALL PAPER 2

Guerrilla movements in [1 country] 

origins 

rise 

consequences 

Liberation theology in Latin America 

not really theological so ignore :3

Paper 2 & 3 — Cold War (Superpower Tension & CW in Americas)

Impact of Castro as a Leader

Impact of Cold War on Cuba

economic 

social 

cultural 

Cuban Missile Crisis

(pg. 207)

causes 

impact 

significance

Cold War in Cuba

Domestic Policy
Reasons	Implications

Foreign Policy
Reasons	Implications

Relevancy

• Paper 2

• Authoritarian States

• Cold War: Superpower Tensions

• Paper 3

• Political Developments in LA

• Cold War and Americas

**