Unit 1 - Emergence of Auth. State in Germany
Timeline & Overview
| 1918 | Nov: Germany defeated in WW1, becomes republic | - Weimar Republic proved to be politically weak - faced left-wing communist rebellion and right-wing conservative and nationalist opposition based on the humiliating Treaty of Versailles - Economic conditions also proved unfavourable - French and Belgians invade the Ruhr in 1923 - hyperinflation resulted, ruining middle-class savings - US loans were withdrawn following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 - Germany fell into depression - National Socialism thrived on the weakness of the Weimar Republic - Hitler’s leadership, aims, and ideology attracted support - Hitler’s promises to restore German prosperity, provide jobs, ‘smash’ Treaty of Versailles got increasing electoral success after 1930 - March 1930, ‘Grand Coalition’ collapsed marking end of democracy - subsequent chancellors used presidential right to issue decrees (Weimar Constitution Article 48) - 1932, Nazis were largest party of the Reichstag (parliament) - President Paul von Hindenburg was persuaded to appoint Hitler as chancellor on Jan 30 1933 - ‘backstairs intrigue’ which Hitler then used - Reichstag Fire permitted a law to imprison communists, which increased support for Nazis in March 1933 elections - Hitler forced an Enabling Act to be passed, giving him dictatorial power | |
| 1919 | Jun: Weimar Republic forced to accept Treaty of Versailles | ||
| 1920 | National Socialists produce 25-point programme, reconciling nationalism and socialism | ||
| 1923 | Jan: FR and Belgium troops invade the Ruhr, massive inflation results Nov: Hitler attempts the Munich Putsch and fails | ||
| 1924 | Feb: Hitler imprisoned in Landsberg Fortress and writes Mein Kampf | ||
| 1929 | Oct: Wall Street Crash causes unemployment in GER | ||
| 1930 | Mar: Müller’s Grand Coalition collapses and Brüning becomes chancellor Sep: Nazis win 107 seats in elections (18.3% of the vote) | ||
| 1932 | Feb: unemployment reaches 6 million Apr: Hindenburg beats Hitler in presidential elections Jun: von Papen replaces Brüning as chancellor Jul: Nazis win 230 Reichstag seats becoming the largest single party Nov: Nazis win 196 Reichstag seats – a sign that their support has passed its peak Dec: von Schleicher becomes chancellor | ||
| 1933 | Jan: Hitler becomes chancellor Feb: Reichstag Fire is blamed on the communists Mar: Nazis win 288 Reichstag seats; Enabling Act gives Hitler dictatorial powers for four years | ||
3.1 How did political conditions in Germany after 1918 contribute to the emergence of a Nazi state?
3.2 How did the economic conditions in Germany in the years 1919 to 1929 contribute to the emergence of a Nazi state?
3.3 How did the aims and ideology of the Nazi Party develop between 1919 and 1929?
3.4 How far did the conditions of 1929–33 contribute to the establishment of the Nazi state?
3.5 Where did the support for National Socialism come from?
Unit 2 - Consolidating and Maintaining Power
3.6 How did Hitler consolidate his power to create an authoritarian regime?
3.7 What part did personality and propaganda play in the consolidation of power?
3.8 What were the main characteristics of the National Socialist government?
3.9 What was the nature and extent of opposition to Nazi rule and how was it dealt with?
3.10 What was the impact of foreign policy on Hitler’s consolidation and maintenance of power?
Unit 3 - Nazi Policies and their Impact
Timeline and Overview
| 1917 | Nov: Bolshevik Rev. in Russia | - Nazi domestic and social policy influenced by belief in national community — ‘Volksgemeinschaft’ - Nazi economic policy incoherent and molded by circumstance, despite ideological basis - Nazis attempted to control Churches through Catholic Concordat and Reich Protestant Church, but neither fully brought into line and alternative faiths didn’t spread - Young people were focus of intense indoctrination via education system and Hitler Youth - experimental modernist Weimar culture rejected in favor of controlled conservative approach to arts, demanding glorification of Nazi values - Nazi policy towards women was conservative to keep women “in the home” but was inconsistent as women were encouraged to go back to the workplace during war years - Minorities were persecuted for social, religious, racial non-conformity. Policies grew more radical as regime grew secure. Attempts to create Jew-free society led to Holocaust and 6 million deaths. | |
| 1933 | Apr: one-day boycott of Jewish shops and businesses ; Civil Service Law May: public burning of ‘un-German’ books; Law for the Protection of Retail Trade Jul: Concordat with Catholic Church Sep: the German Chamber of Culture, Reich Food Estate, and Reich Economic Chamber created ; Reich Entailed Farm Law | ||
| 1934 | Aug: Schacht becomes minister of economics Sep: New Plan comes into effect | ||
| 1935 | Sep: Nuremberg Laws - Jews are deprived of rights | ||
| 1936 | Apr: Lebensborn (Spring of Life) programme launched Oct: Four-Year Plan drawn up with Goering in charge Dec: Hitler Youth membership compulsory | ||
| 1937 | Mar: Pope issues Mit Brennender Sorge (With Burning Anxiety) criticising racism Nov: Schacht resigns as minister of economics and replaced by Goering | ||
| 1938 | Nov: Reichskristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) — anti-Jewish pogrom | ||
| 1939 | Aug: euthanasia programme launched | ||
| 1941 | Aug: Bishop Galen protests against euthanasia Dec: gassing of Jews in mobile vans in Chelmo begins | ||
| 1942 | Jan: Wannsee Conference to coordinate final solution of Jewish question ; Speer takes control of economy |
3.11 What factors influenced domestic and social policy?
From 1933, Nazis set out to fulfill ideological aims and transform society. They wanted to change German behaviour and thinking through “Volksgemeinschaft” or national community, where every member of society worked to support others and contribute to the greater good of the nation, ‘Volk’.
- one way of thinking, one way of life — the Nazi way
They didn’t want to destroy old class divisions but to subordinate them to new Nazi thinking. It perceived women in traditional roles, and was intolerant of alternative institutions such as the church.
The ‘Volk’ was to be made out of pure Aryans, forming a master race, where the state was superior to the individual. Nationalism and common world view would bring people together, allowing them to be committed to the goals of the state, and to expand and dominate.
The ideal German was a peasant farmer, dependent on German soil and living trad. German way of life. Nazis sought to eradicate social and racial outsiders, and therefore wanted to unite Aryan Germans against nationalist and anti-semitic goals.
This guided policy-making in the 1930s.
3.12 How successful was Nazi economic policy?
Hitler lacked a clear economic programme when becoming chancellor in 1933.
The 25-point programme of 1920 claimed to respond to needs of small farmers and urban traders, but this commitment didn’t stay.
While Hitler sought to achieve power, he reassured big business to fund his campaigns.
There was token acknowledgement of socialist aspects in policies in early 1933:
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peasant debts (12 billion Reichsmarks) suspended from March to Oct. 1933
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high tariffs put on imported food
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Reich Food Estate gave peasant farmers guaranteed prices for produce
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Reich Entailed Farm Law (Sept. 1933) gave small farmers security of tenure by forbidding sale, confiscation, division, or mortgaging of small farms owned by Aryans
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Law for the Protection of Retail Trade (May 1933) helped small urban traders
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forbid new department stores
However, these measures took second place to the Nazis predominant desire to strengthen Germany for future war. Thus, the ‘national’ aspect was the main aspect behind economic policy. This produced Wehrwirtschaft, a defense economy that would provide for future war needs.
The principle became more important after 1936 w/ a ‘managed economy’ where the state regulated economic life. Wehrwirtschaft included autarky, which drove out socialism in favor of large-scale farms and rearmament. Thus from July 1933 to Dec 1936, over 1600 new cartel arrangements were made.
Historian Richard Grunberger estimated that only 40% of German production was owned by monopolies in 1933, but 70% in 1937. Many industrialists and companies became close to the regime, such as Krupp or I.G. Farben.
Hitler to building workers in May 1937 - “the decisive factor is not the theory but the performance of the economy,” meaning that no consistent approach was created, leading to ideological contradiction and conflict between private ownership and state direction.
Practical need to prove people with standard of living was difficult to balance with commitment to rearmament
- “guns and butter”
Unemployment peaked at 6 million (1/6th working popn.) in July 1932, and when Hitler became chancellor in 1933, exports were at 39% of the 1928 level. Nazis had to reduce unemployment, stimulate the economy, and address the balance of payments problem resulting from export market collapse.
Thus, March 1933, Hitler appointed Dr. Hjalmar Schacht as president of Reichsbank — a well respected non-Nazi.
July 1933, new law passed to reduce unemployment:
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government spending on public works schemes — Arbeitsdienst
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subsidies for private construction / renovation
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income tax rebates/loans to encourage industrial activity
Other measures:
- emergency relief schemes
- recruitment in Reich Labor Service 1934, sending unemployed to work on civil, military, agricultural projects
- law of construction of 7000 km motorway — the Autobahnen
- specific regulations. such as no machinery for road building to allow for labor
- expansion of party and national bureaucracy
- discouragement of female labor
- March 1935, conscription and increased rearmament
Tax concessions were offered to businesses, and Schacht raised money for investment through ‘mefo bills’:
- credit notes by the Reichsbank and backed by the gov’t
- a form of deficit financing
- paid back with interest after 5 years with tax revenue that they would generate
- repayments on mefo bills accounted for 50% of gov’t spending in 1934-35
Mefo bills permitted subsidies and agreements matching private investment in the car industry. This stimulated housing, road construction, the rearmament industry, etc.
Schacht took action to erode Germany’s debt and improve balance of payments:
- 1933, controls to limit drain of Germany’s foreign exchange by paying foreign debts in Reichsmarks
July 1934, debt repayment was stopped and creditors were given bonds. Although this was opposed, they failed to pressure Germany. Thus, the Nazis pushed forth with the New Plan in Sept. 1934, devised by Schacht, who became the minister of economics.
The New Plan aims:
- increased gov’t regulation of imports
- development of trade with less-developed countries
- development of Germany trade with central and south-east Europe
The New Plan execution:
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series of trade agreements with Balkan and South American states giving import of vital raw materials
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paid in Reichsmarks to encourage foreign purchase of German goods
Other influenced that revived the economy:
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avoidance of labor troubles via dissolution of trade unions
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banning of strikes
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creation of DAF in May 1933
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use of propaganda to increase illusion of success & prosperity
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‘windfalls’:
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seizure of Jewish and Austrian assets
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Anschluss 1938
Did the Nazis perform an ‘economic miracle’?
Unemployment fell from 6 million to 2.5 million in 18 months of Hitler coming to power.
1936 — 1.6 million
1939 — under 200,000
Economic investment increased and public expenditure:
- 17.1 billion in 1932
- 18.4 billion in 1933
- 23.6 billion Reichsmarks in 1939
Despite Hitler talking about new ‘determination’, the economic situation when he took office wasn’t as bad as he suggested. Reparations had ended and unemployment was already beginning to fall with the est. of work creation schemes. The world economic recovery from late 1932 laid the basis for the Nazi miracle.
Further, Nazi policies were not a total success:
- foreign currency reserves stayed low
- balance of payments continued to be in deficit
- after 1936, grew worse as Schacht’s influence declined
- rearmament strained economy
- real wages increased but price of food rose
Despite Nazi claims, economic policies were not thought through, so the economic miracle was not due to Nazi work.
How ready was Germany for war in 1939?
By 1936, Schacht was urging for less public expenditure and slower rearmament as it strained the balance of payments. Hitler disagreed, and Aug. 1936 the Four-Year Plan was announced with Hermann Goering directing it.
Four-Year Plan (1936):
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emphasis on autarky
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plants to build substitute synthetic materials such as artificial rubber
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encouragement to chemical industry and development of synthetic fuel
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development of steelworks using lower-grade German ore
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emphasis on production of heavy machinery
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office of Four-Year Plan regulates foreign exchange, labor, raw material distribution and prices
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targets for private industry est. through 6 sub-offices controlling production & distribution:
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raw materials
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labour force
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agriculture
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price control
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foreign exchange
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ReichswerekeHermann Goering (steel plant)
The plan extended Nazi control by setting up a ‘managed’ economy by cooperating with big business.
Private industry continued but failure to meet expectations would result in takeovers.
The plan had success with growth in production in all areas, but overall targets were not met and synthetic production was too expensive.
1939, Germany imported 1/3rd of raw materials (iron ore, oil, rubber) and shortage of foreign exchange reserves stayed
The plan was impeded by bureaucratic inefficiency and internal rivalry while the need to maintain consumer good production for German people impeded priorities.
Marxist Historian Tim Mason argues that the German economy was in crisis by 1938, which drove Germany to war. The economy was under strain from rearmament, but they couldn’t make sacrifices such as wage reductions. The conflict between ‘guns and butter’ also threatened unrest in working classes, so Hitler had to go to war early.
Historian Overy argues that the decision to go to war caused the economic crisis, and the decision was decided by ending appeasement.
Most historians agree regardless that Germany was not ready for war in 1939:
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Taylor — Hitler was unable to focus on rearmament due to consumer production
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Burton Klein — ready for short Blitzkrieg but not total war
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modest scale of economic mobilization in 1939 and 30% rise in production of consumer goods from 1936-39
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Overy — Hitler was preparing but not ready
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speech at Hossbach Conference Nov. 1937 — Hitler argued BR and FR wouldn’t fight for Czech independence and Poland could be taken without war
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Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939 (deal with Stalin to divide Poland) demonstrates Hitler wanted to get Poland peacefully to use its resources before launching war later
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due to failure of peaceful expansion in Sept. 1939, Hitler told Goering he wanted “complete conversion of economy to wartime requirements” causing dates to be brought forward
Speer’s Management of Wartime Economy
Nazi rearmament programs were only halfway complete when war broke out.