Chapter 2 - Mussolini and Italy

Unit 1 - Emergence of Auth. State in Italy

Timeline

1861	formation of independent italy
1870	papal states incorporated into Italian kingdom
1911	Sept: Italy invades Libya
1914	Jun: ‘Red Week’ Nov: Mussolini founds “Il Popolo d’Italia”
1915	May: Italy signs Treaty of London; ‘Radiant Days of May’; participation in WW1 causes inflation
1919	Jan: start of “biennio rosso”; first Arditi Association set up in Rome Mar: formation of the “Fascio di Combattimento” in Milan Jun: “Fascist Programme” published Sep: D’Annunzio takes Fiume Nov: first use of proportional representation in elections; no fascists elected
1920	Sep: “Biennio rosso”: a wave of factory occupations; electoral victories for socialists
1921	May: Mussolini forms National Bloc electoral alliance with Giolitti; 35 fascists elected, including Mussolini Aug: Pact of Pacification between fascists and socialists Oct: Formation of National Fascist Party (PNF) Nov: Mussolini elected leader of PNF
1922	Jul-Aug: General strike broken up by fascist violence Oct: march on Rome, Mussolini appointed PM
1925	“Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals” published
1932	“The Doctrine of Fascism” published

Overview

• problems:

• independence gained from Austria in 1861, but Italy still divided

• incorporation of papal states in 1870 resulted in Catholic hostility against the new Italian kingdom until the early 20th cent.

• 1900, right to vote restricted

• liberal domination of politics through “transformismo” undermining support for parliamentary democracy

• opp. from growing socialist movement

• economic & social division between prosperous industrial North and poorer agricultural South

• unrest due to claims made by Italian nationalists for territories in Europe and demands to establish colonies in Africa and Asia

• problems worsened by Italy’s entry into WW1

• division between interventionists and neutral ppl

• casualties and inflation

• after war:

• disappointment at limited territorial gains from peace treaties

• higher unemployment

• 1912-1922, socialist-led strikes and factory occupations

• increasing violence of right-wing groups (ex. Arditi & Fasci di Combattimento) against the left

• 1921, Mussolini established PNF and made electoral pact with liberals

• new wave of fascist violence ignored by elite & authorities

• many contradictory ideas that formed the fascist ideology had origins in 19th cent. beliefs

• Mussolini’s own political views covered the entire spectrum

• revolutionary socialism until 1914

• nationalism

• fascism by 1919

• Mussolini initially placed more emphasis on action than ideology

• 1919-1922, radical elements of fascist programmes and policies were increasingly moderated

• 1922, local fascist leaders took over towns and regions

• Oct, ‘March on Rome’ made Mussolini the PM

• Mussolini continued to distance himself from early fascism

• 1926 on, radical members of PNF were purged and party came under Mussolini’s control

• creation of corporate state emphasized power of Italian state and employers of employees

• 1930s, Mussolini tried to issue clearer statements of fascist ideology but Italy became a personal dictatorship, rather than a party dictatorship

2.1 How did the political and economic conditions in Italy before 1914 contribute to the emergence of an authoritarian regime?

Problems of Liberal Italy Before 1914

Long-term factors behind the emergence of Mussolini are due to the weaknesses of Italy’s liberal monarchy before 1914. In 1861, the Risorgimento (resurgence) nationalist movement succeeded in creating a unified independent Italy, but the Catholic Church remained separate in Rome. The people weren’t united however, and several serious problems left the resurgence process incomplete.

1. Italian politics and impact of trasformismo

After unification, Italian politics were dominated by liberals seeking to modernise Italy, but they were divided into progressives and conservatives, and united only in distrust of the masses, as well as fear of socialists, anarchists, republicans, and the Catholic Church, which all opposed the new state.

Thus, liberals sought to keep politics under control until internal division was settled, and thus voting was very restricted (2% of adults allowed to vote).

This caused resentment and corruption in the masses. The lack of party discipline and mass parties caused factions to make deals with one another to alternate political control — the process of trasformismo.

Even though voting rights were extended and adult males could vote by 1912, trasformismo continued.

Political disunity was intensified by hostility of the papacy towards the state:

• 1890s, liberal regime moderated in fear of socialist takeover
• 1904, Catholics could vote to prevent socialism
• however, still no real harmony

2. regional division

Italians felt more loyalty to towns and regions than the national government.

This was worsened by:

• mountain ranges and islands making communication difficult

• Southern lack of road and railway development

• intentional by earlier rulers to prevent spread of liberalism from North

This also contributed to economic divisions:

• south was poor compared to north and central

• little fertile land, controlled by large estates called latifundia owned by small % of wealthy landowners

• majority of pop’n extremely poor

• north and central was much more developed

• more modern farming methods and machinery in agriculture

• productivity still lower than Northern European countries

• significant social divides still existed

• land owned by wealthy landowners (‘agrari’) that rented land to poor farmers and sharecroppers

• large class of rural labourers at bottom of social scale

• same issue of poverty and discontent causing class conflict

• biggest difference was industry

• Fiat car company in 1899, exporting 40,000 cars annually by 1913

• allows Northern towns and cities to grow rapidly

• creates large industrial working class, lower-middle class, powerful rich industrialists and bankers

• little investment in South

• still, social and economic inequality led to clashes between employers and employees

• workers joined socialists or anarchists

• 1904 general strike

• emigration to US

3. problem of terra irredenta and desire for empire

After 1870, many Italians realized Risorgimento was not complete:

• terra irredenta (unredeemed lands) in Europe
• lack of a strong empire

Many Italians hoped unification would enable Italy to become a world superpower through empire building. They looked at the example set by Germany, and started taking steps:

• 1885 acquisition of port of Massawa on Red Sea

• 1890 development into Italian colony of Eritrea, conquest of Italian Somaliland

• however increasing tensions with Abyssinia (Ethiopia)

• 1911 invasion of Libya (Turkish colony) to expand & block French influence

• 1912 captured Libya

Despite successes, aggressive imperial policy developments continued in anger of the 1896 defeat in Abyssinia.

2.2 How did conditions during 1914-22 contribute to Mussolini’s rise to power?

Despite being a member of the Triple Alliance, Italy stayed neutral at the outbreak of WW1.

impact of WW1 & peace treaties 1914-19

italian participation

Most Italians (esp. socialists) favoured neutrality, but nationalists saw intervention as an opportunity to gain land and expand. With the ambition to reclaim terra irredenta, the liberal government waited to see which side offered the best terms. Negotiations with the Triple Alliance revealed that Austria-Hungary would not concede Trentino or Trieste, but the Entente nations promised those and more!!

Treaty of London

Interventionists organized street demonstrations to defend Italian involvement—many members of the fasci, anarcho-syndicalists, and national socialists that saw war as a method to bring revolution. They were joined by right-wing nationalists of the Italian Nationalist Association (ANI). However, politicians had already decided, and in May 1914 signed the Treaty of London joining the Triple Entente.

Performance in WW1

The war did not go well, due to:

• poor military leadership
• wars of attrition
• poor supplies and equipment

Nov. 1917, defeat by Austrians in Battle of Caporetto, with 40,000 deaths and 300,000 taken prisoner.

Oct. 1918, costly victory at Vittorio Veneto, but overshadowed by previous defeats and casualties

Socialists maintained strong opposition throughout the war, so unification failed.

Economic Impact

The war put Italy in a bad situation:

• heavy borrowing from UK and US

• debt — 16 billion lire turned into 85 billion

• printing of more banknotes caused inflation

• prices increased by 400% from 1915 to 1918

• destroyed middle class savings

• reduced rental incomes of landowners

• caused >25% drop in wages of workers

• end of war industries and demobilization

• mass unemployment, esp of 2.5 million soldiers

• deepened economic divisions

• North increased prices of industrial state contracts

• South was mainly agricultural, so greatly suffered

• promised land reform to limit attraction of socialism

Terms of Peace Treaties & Mutilated Victory

Italian PM Vittorio Orlando went to the Paris Peace Conferences in Jan. 1919, demanding the promised territories and more.

However, these were met very slowly, and some demands were denied.

They wanted:

• port of Fiume
• share of former German colonies in Africa
• Trentino
• Trieste
• Austrian territory in south Tyrol, Istria
• northern Dalmatia

They were denied:

• Fiume
• northern Dalmatia
• African territory

The defeat of Austria-Hungary meant Italy was the dominant power in the Adriatic, but nationalists wanted more and accused the liberal government of allowing Italy to be humiliated and cheated. Popular nationalist Gabriele D’Annunzio criticized this as a ‘mutilated victory’, which appealed to veterans.

By 1919, liberals were threatened by many problems, including growing dissatisfaction of nationalists and opposition from other political parties.

In Jan. 1919, the papacy lifted the ban on the formation of a Catholic political party, resulting in the creation of the Italian Popular Party (PPI).

Italian Socialist Party (PSI) & Socialist Threat

The PSI was a serious threat to the liberal regime.

The economic impact of WW1 caused great discontent for industrial and rural workers. The socialist party increasingly moved into a revolutionary position.

In 1917, inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution, it called for the overthrow of the liberal state to establish a socialist republic.

It grew from 50,000 members in 1914 to 200,000 members in 1919.

However, socialist leaders were stronger on rhetoric than action.

Biennio Rosso, 1919-20

After unemployment rose to 2 million in 1919, industrial workers began to take militant action from 1919-20.

This was called the biennio rosso — ‘two red years’. It involved strikes, factory and land occupations. It was led by trade unions, peasant leagues, and included >1 million workers. By the end of 1919, socialist trade unions had more than 2 million members, compared to 250,000 at the start.

In many areas, esp. the north, socialists controlled the local government. It seemed like a communist revolution was about to start, but the government did little, in belief that workers were not dangerous and militancy would decline. Thus, they set up food committees to control distribution and prices, which portrayed the government as incompetent due to lack of forceful response.

Threat from the Right

After WW1, militant and right-wing groups joined in search of change. For example, the Arditi — black-shirted commando troops with officers that hated the liberal political system for failing to obtain the land despite sacrifices.

• typically all demobilized and unemployed officers & troops

In early 1919, the Arditi formed into organized groups:

• first Arditi Association set up in Rome in Jan
• another in Milan, est. by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
• Feb — many Arditi groups formed to attack socialists and trade unionists who were regarded as enemies of Italy

Mussolini & Fascio di Combattimento

March 1919, Mussolini, a member of the Arditi, tried to bring groups together.

23 March, 119 people of different Arditi groups met in Milan to form a Fascio di Combattimento, which became the Fascists of the First Hour.

They intended to combine nationalists and socialists with a militant Fascist Programme (pub. June 6 1919) combining left and right-wing demands.

However, they were really united by hatred of the liberal state.

D’Annunzio and Fiume

Mussolini’s network was overshadowed by Gabriele D’Annunzio who led 2000 armed men to Fiume, one of the areas Italy didn’t get. They took control for 15 months and ruled the city in defiance of the liberal Italian government.

This made him a hero and an inspiration to Mussolini:

• Roman salute
• black shirts of Arditi
• theatrical presentation
• parades and balcony speeches

Mussolini and Fasci di Combattimento’s weakness was highlighted in the Nov. 1919 elections for Chamber of Deputies (lower house of parliament).

It was held using proportional representation, but no fascist candidates were elected.

Mussolini only got 5000 out of 270,000 votes in Milan.

In 1919, there were only about 4,000 committed fascist supporters in Italy.

2.3

2.4

Unit 2 - Consolidation & Maintenance of Power

Timeline & Overview

- by 1922, Mussolini was PM but not head of gov’t - starts taking steps to increase power over state and party - w/ support from RCC & industrialists, 1923 Mussolini pushes through reform of electoral system - 1924 election, PNF became largest party w/ various methods - after ‘Matteotti crisis’ of 1924, Mussolini started to est. auth one-party state in 1925 - banning trade unions & opp parties - taking control of local gov’t - steps taken to create corporate state also consolidated power - including over Fascist Party - repression, censorship, control of media, propaganda used to create Mussolini’s personal dictatorship by late 1920s - late entry into WW2 in 1940 leads to increased opposition and downfall in 1943 - Mussolini captured & shot by partisans in 1945		1922	Nov: Mussolini given emergency powers Dec: Est. Fascist Grand Council
	1923	Jan: Formation of national fascist militia Jun: Corfu Incident Jul: Acerbo
	1924	Mar: fascist violence against opp. Apr: elections where fascist & fascist allies win w/ large majority Jun: Matteoti abducted & murdered Aug: Aventine Secessions
	1925	Jan: end of ‘Matteotti Crisis’ Jul: control of press exerted Aug: Fascist podesta control provinces
	1926	Jan: Mussolini takes power to rule by decree Oct: trade unions and all opposition parties banned
	1928	May: new electoral law restricts franchise to males belonging to fascist syndicates; powers of king reduced
	1930	Mar: est. National Council of Corporations
	1935	Oct: invasion of Abyssinia
	1936	Jul: Italy intervenes w/ Nazi Ger. in Spanish Civil War Oct: Rome-Berlin Axis
	1939	Jan: Chamber of Fasci and Corporations replaces Chamber of Deputies Apr: Invasion of Albania
	1940	Jun: Italy enters WW2
		1942	allied bombing of italy
		1943	Jul: Mussolini brought down by coup Sep: Italy surrenders, formation of Salo Republic (Italian Social Republic)
		1945	Apr: Mussolini captured while fleeing and shot

2.5 How did Mussolini consolidate power from 1922 to 1924?

By Nov. 1922, Mussolini was PM but Italy was not fascist, so he needed to change the constitution. To do this, he set out to get more political allies and widened the political appeal of fascism. This was important because his gov’t was a Nationalist-Popolari-Liberal coalition that could easily fall apart if any party withdrew. Only four fascists were in the cabinet, and the king could dismiss Mussolini. The king and other leaders believed Mussolini could be tamed and used.

Early Consolidation

Mussolini wanted to est. one-party fascist state w/ himself as dictator.

He gave a first speech to parliament on Nov. 16 1922, w/ a veiled threat of 300,000 armed and obedient Fascist Party members.

He asked for emergency powers to deal with Italy’s economic and political problems.

He was granted the vote of confidence and emergency powers for a year by the deputies.

Controlling the Fascist Party

To increase support over conservative elites, Mussolini appointed liberal Alberto de Stefani as finance minister:

•  policies such as:

• reducing gov’t control on industry and trade

• cutting taxes

• pleased industrialists and shopkeepers

• angered left of Fascist Party as wanted social reform

To increase power over Fascist Party, Fascist Grand Council est. 1922 Dec by Mussolini:

• Jan. 1923, agree on formation of national militia from regional fascist squads

• National Security Guards (MSVN)

• funded by gov’t

• swore oath to Mussolini, instead of king

• HITLER DOES THIS TOO!

• thus, paramilitary org. over 30,000 men against anti-fascists

• reduced power of provincial ras

• worked w/ gov’t Council of Ministers

• fascist ministers passed important decisions to Council of Ministers for approval

• Mussolini acted as prime, interior, and foreign minister

1923, employer’s organization the Confindustria pledged support for Mussolini:

• due to announcement of no serious measures against tax evasion (by wealthy folk)

Mar. 1923, Nationalist Party fully merged with Fascist Party

• merge gives fascist more paramilitary forces (Nationalist Blueshirts)

• confirms Mussolini’s shift to the right (conservative elite) which scared militant fascists

• vs. Peron who got support from workers

The Vatican

Apr. to Jun. 1923, Mussolini worked to gain support from Catholic Church to increase political base and weaken Popolari

Mussolini announced measures:

• renouncing atheism
• mandatory religious education
• banning contraception
• punishing swearing in public

Pope Pius XI, who already was a fascist sympathiser, signalled willingness to withdraw support for the Popolari

April 1923, Mussolini sacked all Popolari ministers from his gov’t, claiming they wouldn’t give him full support

June, Pope forced priest Don Luigi Sturzo (Popolari leader) to resign

Summer 1923, the Popolari party lost political importance after losing support of conservative Catholics

Changing the constitution — the Acerbo Law

Unit 3 - Fascist Policies and Their Impact

Timeline & Overview

2.10 What were Mussolini’s economic and social policies, and what factors influenced them?

Mussolini did not understand economics, but understood the importance of a strong economy in consolidating his regime and supporting his aggressive foreign policy. Thus, he did not seek to make fascism a “third way” (between capitalism and socialism), but instead sought to make Italy rich. To do this, he needed autarky in agriculture and industry, so he needed to overcome poverty and agricultural issues in Italy and conquer an empire to supply materials.

Mussolini’s economic ‘battles’

Mussolini launched campaigns called ‘battles’.

Reasons	Aims	Impacts
Battle over the Southern Problem (1924)
widespread poverty in Southern Italy	promised to build thousands of new villages in Sicily and the south	attempted to destroy the Mafia
Battle for Grain (1925)
response to poor harvest & consequent increase in grain import	aimed to get Italian farmers to grow more cereals (esp. wheat) reduce dependence on foreign import	import controls ensured inefficient farmers in the South could continue farming without modernizing more land given for growing grain - done through ploughing pasture land, olive & citrus orchards, vineyards medals awarded for production & stories of winning farmers publicized mechanization of wheat farming over maize in the North increased usage of tractors and fertilizers benefited industrial firms dealing with vehicles, rubber, and chemicals
Battle for Land (1926)
increase available amount of farmland	drain marshes and swamps	marshes and swamps drained (ex. Pontine Marshes by Rome) est. of small farms financed by public funds - creates work for unemployed
Battle for Lira (Aug. 18 1926)
value of Italian currency dropped	restore value abroad & increase Italian prestige	lira was revalued allowed Italy to continue importing coal and iron for arms and shipbuilding

2.11 How successful were Mussolini’s economic and social policies?

Were the battles won or lost?

They were not successful and inconsistent.

• No villages were built for the Battle over the Southern Problem.
• Battle for Grain doubled cereal production by 1939 to grant self-sufficiency but resulted in needing to import olive oil and exports (fruit, wine, cattle, sheep) dropped.
• Battle for Land only reclaimed significant area of the Pontine Marshes.
• Battle for the Lira artificially raised the value of the lira but caused declining exports and increasing unemployment. Car exports were hit, and a recession was started which got worse by the Great Depression.

They intended to achieve autarky but caused more problems than they solved.

Fascism and State Intervention

Before the Depression, Mussolini didn’t interfere with private enterprise and favored large companies & heavy industry.

When the Depression hit, he started interfering, such as encouraging job sharing schemes.

The effects of the Depression:

• 1930, Mussolini had to drop claims that the regime improved living standards of working-class

• 1931, Mussolini’s gov’t used public money to help prevent collapse of banks and industries impacted by Depression

• 1933, employment rose past 2 million, and millions more suffered underemployment

• 30% lost labor jobs in agriculture

• women forced to give jobs to men

• migration to the city was limited to prevent spread of unemployment which made countryside worse

The Institude per la Reconstruzione Industriale (IRI)

The Institute of Industrial Reconstruction was set up in 1933. At first it took over unprofitable industries for the state.

By 1933, it became a massive state company that controlled the iron & steel industry, merchant shipping, electrical industry, and telephone system.

However, it was not meant to nationalize permanently and Mussolini sold them to larger industries which formed monopolies.

Ex. Montecatini and SINA Viscasa owned the entire Italian chemical industry.

Autarky in the 1930s

Mussolini increasingly adopted protectionist measures after the Depression to push for autarky. This became more important in 1935 after countries from the League of Nations imposed economic sanctions after the invasion of Abyssinia.

With more military action, the push for autarky also increased, as did the problems for achieving it.

Moderate progress was made:

• 1940, industrial production up 9%

• industry overtook agriculture as largest proportion of GNP for first time in Italian history

• 1928 - 1939, imports of raw material and industrial goods dropped significantly

However, overall, there was not significant modernization or improvement in productivity. Thus, Italy recovered slower, and its economic and industrial weakness was obvious entering WW2.

Social Impact of Fascism

The ‘third way’ ideal of fascism was meant to replace class conflict by bringing equal benefits to employers and employees, and removing exploitation.

Class	Impact
industrial worker	1922-25 (early years of Mussolini’s rule) — male workers were employed more and living standards improved - partially due to Alberto de Stefani’s cautioous policies but also the general economic revival in Italy 1925-6 — workers lost trade unions and right to strike, promises about the corporate state failed to materialize - class conflict worsened as workers couldn’t defend their interests and employers no longer had state interference or worker opposition - economy declined in second half of 1920’s - eight-hour day and work week were extended - wages cut (1928 to 1935, real wages dropped over 10%) 1939 — only small minority benefited significantly from fascist rule - standard of living & quality of life declined - unemployment increased after Depression - public work schemes failed - workers couldn’t protest in fear of losing jobs - social welfare legislations were passed but failed to make up for loss in wages and poor working conditions - education expendinture increased - old-age pension - unemployment & health insurance
peasants & agricultural worker	Mussolini claimed to love the countryside and ‘ruralize’ Italy but rural areas worsened Mussolini favored large landowners over small farmers and agricultural laborers 1922, land reform law introduced by failed - split large estates & redistribute 1930s — agricultural wages dropped >30% mass emigration of Italians to escape rural poverty - 200,000 moved to USA from 1920-29 - US reduction of immigration quotas mid-1920s made it worse - rural workers ignored gov’t decrees and ended up in slums in Milan, Turin, Rome
lower-middle class	small business owners were hit hard by the Depression and Mussolini’s economic policies those that joined the administrative bureaucracy of the state and the Fascist party enjoyed prosperity - good wages, benefits - corruption to increase income
industrialists & landowners	benefited the most Vidoni Pact of 1925 & Chater of Labor 1927 - increased power of employers - prevented workers from defending during depression, large firms benefited from gov’t contracts and assistance 1935, special workbooks were printed - needed to be signed in local prefects to allow workers to move - kept unemployment high in rural areas - landowners exploited to cut wages

2.12 What were the main religious policies in Mussolini’s fascist Italy?

The Church

Mussolini was successful in gathering support from the Church, despite having anti-religious views, as he saw that most Italians were Catholic.

In 1921, he presented the Fascist Party as an alternative to the anti-clerical liberals and the atheistic communists and socialists.

Thus, the Church was pleased by the Fascist defeat of socialists and communists, and saw benefits to ending the conflict between Church and State.

After becoming PM, Mussolini restored Catholic education in state primary schools, which made the papacy consider ending support for the Catholic Popolari. The real breakthrough came through in 1929 after secret negotiations between fascists and Cardinal Gasparri (senior Vatican official).

The negotiations resulted in three Lateran Agreements, which ended the conflict between the papacy and the Italian state since 1870.

The Lateran Treaty:

• Government Side:

• accepted papal sovereignty over Vatican City (independence)

• made Roman Catholicism the official state religion

• compulsory Catholic religious education in state schools

• state would pay salaries of clergy

• divorce requires consent of the Church & abolishment of civil marriages

• Pope Side:

• formally recognized the Italian state and its possession of Rome and former papal states

• agreed that state could veto appointment of politically hostile bishops

• agreed that clergy couldn’t join political policies

Collaborators or rivals?

The Lateran Agreements still established that Catholicism could rival fascism as an ideology, preventing totalitarian dictatorship, but Mussolini was satisfied. The Church backed him as Il Duce.

The Lateran Agreements led people to regard the RCC as a fascist collaborator, which they were (demonstrated by the fascist salute of the priests).

However, relations weren’t always smooth:

• 1928, rivalry between Catholic & Fascist youth movements led to the ban on the Catholic Scout organization

• 1931, gov’t tried to suppress the Catholic Action youth organization

• compromise was only reached after the pope criticized fascism for interfering in education and family matters

• 1938, disagreement over anti-Semitic fascist policies

Mussolini never fully controlled the Church.

2.13 What were Mussolini’s policies towards women, ethnic, and other minorities?

Women and families

Women suffered the most under fascism, as their status was downgraded constantly while promoting traditional housewife roles, and employment opportunities declined.

Battle for Births (1927)
Reason	Aim	Impact
create large army to expand Italian empire	increase population from 40 million to 60 million (1927 to 1950)	- encouraged early marriage - offered generous maternity benefits - exhorted women to not work - gave jobs to married fathers over single men - gave prizes to women with most children - taxation policy - Bachelors had to pay extra taxes - Couples with 6+ children paid nothing - newlyweds were given rail tickets for honeymoon - 1931, same-sex relations outlawed & laws against abortion and divorce - series of decrees to restrict female employment - 1933, 10% of state jobs can be held by women - 1938, extended to private firms - intended to stop male unemployment but showed fascist attitude

However, many women retained pre-1922 positions. Both fascist policies (increasing births, reducing working women) failed to meet targets.

Birthrates declined from 29.9 per 1000 to 23.1 per 1000 from 1925 to 1940.

1/3rd of the Italian workforce remained female by 1940.

This failure was partially due to Mussolini’s mass conscription of men.

Racism and anti-Semitism

There was a general racist attitude to early fascism as part of nationalist and expansionist policies, although racism was not characteristic to the ideology. It was also part of the Romanita movement.

Mussolini believed the Italian race was superior to African races in Libya and Abyssinia. In Sept. 1938, Mussolini claimed that ‘prestige’ was needed to maintain the empire and required a clear ‘racial consciousness’ and superiority (in a newspaper, Il Giornale D’Italia).

Until 1936, when Mussolini joined Nazi Germany in an alliance of the Rome-Berlin Axis, anti-semitism didn’t play a part in politics. Mussolini actually criticized anti-semitism as “unscientific”

2.14 What were the main fascist policies on education and young people, and what impact did they have?

‘Fascistisation’ — education and indoctrination

Fascism and youth movements

2.15 To what extent was authoritarian control established in fascist Italy?