Case Study 2 - German and Italian expansion (1933-1939)

Chapter 5 - Causes of German and Italian Expansion

Timeline

Time	Event
1861	Mar: Kingdom of Italy est.
1867	Apr: North German Confederation formed
1870	Jul: Italian unification completed
1871	Jan: German unification completed
1879	start of ‘Scramble for Africa’
1884-99	Germany establishes colonies in Africa and the Pacific
1885	Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland est. in Africa
1896	Mar: Italy defeated at Battle of Adowa
1910	Dec: Italian Nationalist Association formed
1911-12	Italo-Turkish war ; Italy est. colony of Italian East Africa
1914	Aug: WW1 start
1915	May: Treat of London
1918	Jan: Wilson’s 14 Points
1919	Jun: Treaty of Versailles Sep: Treaty of St. Germain; D’Annunzio seizes Fiume
1920	Jan: League of Nations est. Feb: Hitler launches Nazi party
1921	Oct: March on Rome ; Mussolini → PM
1923	Aug: Corfu Incident Nov: Hitler’s unsuccessful Beer Hall Putsch
1926	Sep: Germany allowed to join League of Nations
1929	Oct: Stresemann dies; Wall Street Crash
1933	Jan: Hitler appointed chancellor
1934	Sept: Schacht’s ‘New Plan’
1935	Oct: Italian invasion of Abyssinia
1936	Sept: Goring’s 4-year plan
1937	Mussolini launches Romanita exhibitions

Overview

• roots of fascism and nationalist ideology in both Italy and Germany are due to 19th cent. unification of states

• Italy — 1870, Germany — 1871

• achieved through political development & internal/external military conflict

• ultra-nationalists in both countries campaigned for imperial expanion to match Britan and France

• both gaining colones in Africa, Germany also in Pacific

• WW1 & peace treaties cause more nationalism, anger due to treaties

• nationalist frustration → fascist movements

• 1922, Mussolini → PM of Italy, fascist dictatorship est.

• extreme nationalism as part of ideology

• goals to redraw European borders (peace treaties 1919-20) & expand national territory

• Wall Street Crash 1929 and Great Depression allows Nazi party to gain power in Germany 1933

• economic impact makes territorial expansion more attractive

• Depression limits ability of League to maintain peace

5.1 What was the impact of Fascist and Nazi ideology on expansionist foreign policies in Italy and Germany?

After the end of WW1 and before the start of WW2, there was lots of economic and political turmoil (ex. revolutions). The first country to experience the emergence and spread of fascism was Italy. However, nationalism also drove the expansionist policies that followed.

Fascist Ideology

Fascism has no coherent unified ideological root. However, historians attempt to characterize fascism. 

• Alexander de Grand — ‘nationalist fascism’ w/ aggressive foreign policy to achieve terr. expansion

• beliefs of: 

• violent action

• racial supremacy

• nationalism

• empire

• R. Griffin & S. Payne

• populist ‘ultra-nationalism’

Italian nationalism before 1933

Nationalism grew before fascism.

Italian unification

Until 19th cent. Italy consisted of several different states, and was not a unified country. Italian nationalists remained a minority until 1859, when changing circumstances led to Risorgimento (unification of Italy) in 1861. The Kingdom of Italy was established, and Rome and Venice were also incorporated by 1870.

Italia irredenta and empire

However, many Italians still lived in neighbouring territories under foreign rule. This brought about Italia irridenta (unredeemed Italy), the idea that Italy was not whole until it combined all Italians under one state.  For nationalists, this created the belief in strong foreign policy to unify Italians through national pride and gain international respect.

Thus, in 1879 when the ‘Scramble for Africa’ begun, Italy was keen to expand. This formed an important part of Italian fascism.

Scramble for Africa Timeline
1882	foothold in Eritrea
1885	push in Ethiopia but defeated est. colonies (Eritrea & Italian Somaliland)
1893	w/ help from Britain, attempt to expand into Ethiopia
1895	occupation of Tigre province in Abyssinia
1896	defeat by Ethiopians in Battle of Adowa - seen as national embarrassment
1911	attack on Ottoman-owned Tripolitania, causing Italo-Turkish War of 1911-12
1912	capture Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Fezzan to form Italian East Africa
1934	Italian East Africa → Italian Libya nationalists continued to press for aggressive imperial policies

Impact of WW1 & Peace Treaties 1914-19

In 1910, the nationalist and imperialist Italian Nationalist Association was formed (ANI). This appealed to dissatisfied nationalists and conservatives to return to a glorious Italian past, like the ancient Roman empire. Nationalists increasingly saw war as a way to gain more colonies and fulfill Italia irridenta.

Before 1914, Italy had been part of the Triple Alliance, but fell neutral when war broke out, and supported the Triple Entente in 1915 after the Treaty of London in May promised more territorial gains. 

However, they lost to the Austrians by Nov. 1917 in the Battle of Caporetto. Nationalists blamed the gov’t for inefficiency and failing to supply troops sufficiently.

When the war ended, they received most of what they wanted, but were denied some territories. However, they now dominated the Adriatic with Austria-Hungary gone.

They wanted:

• port of Fiume

• share of former German colonies in Africa

• Trentino

• Trieste

• Austrian territory in south Tyrol, Istria

• northern Dalmatia

They were denied:

• Fiume

• northern Dalmatia

• African territory

Italian Nationalism and the Mutilated Victory

Nationalists were angry, accusing the Liberal gov’t of being humiliated and cheated. Popular nationalist Gabriele D’Annunzio called it a ‘mutilated victory’.

12 Sep. 1919, D’Annunzio led 2000 armed men to the city of Fiume, an area that was denied to Italy. They took control and held the city, but were forced  to surrender Dec. 1920. This made him a hero to nationalists and inspired Mussolini, causing the adoption of the black shirts of the Arditi, the ancient Roman salute, and the parades and balcony speeches.

Italian fascism

Mussolini never attempted to define fascism until becoming PM. In 1925, he started drawing up the fascist doctrine with the help of intellectuals (ex. philosopher Giovanni Gentile), creating the Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals. However, this attempt was not effective in summarizing fascism due to contradictory and diverse ideas of the ideology.

In 1932, another effort was made when Gentile wrote an entry for the Italian Encyclopedia, which was then published separately as The Doctrine of Fascism in 1933 under Mussolini’s name. However, this was more a statement of what fascism was against, than what it stood for.

Several aspects of fascism were related to German Nazism:

• Social Darwinism
• nationalism in unification of language/cultural groups
• mechanism of foreign policy to enable strength

Fascism and nationalism before 1922

After WW1, Mussolini set up the newspaper The People of Italy Nov 1914 to campaign for war. This was financed by wealthy Italian companies, as well as the gov’ts of France, Britain, and Russia.

In 1919, the Fascio di Combattimento was set up, and in 1921, the PNF (National Fascist Party) was formed.

To widen the appeal of the party, Mussolini stressed the commitment to strong government, patriotism, and nationalism—ideas that encouraged wars of conquest.

The Romanita movement

After Mussolini and the fascists gained power in 1922, they wanted to consolidate power through aggressive foreign policy. 

This led to the Corfu Incident of Aug. 1923:

• an Italian general was murdered on Greek soil while making maps of a disputed area for the Conference of Ambassadors

• Mussolini demanded 50 million lire as compensation and an apology

• Greece refused to pay, as they were not responsible

• Italian marines invaded the Greek island of Corfu

• the Conference of Ambassadors forced Italy to withdraw

• Greek gov’t refused to apologize but paid the money

• Mussolini was seen as a hero

Mussolini also increasingly linked the regime to Ancient Rome—forming the Romanita movement. Fascist art and literature portrayed fascism as a revival of Ancient Roman civilization. 

From 1926, Mussolini gained the title of Il Duce (Latin for ‘The Leader’) and propaganda portrayed him as a new ‘Caesar’ to make Italy great again. 

From 1927, a variety of Romanita exhibitions celebrated the 2000th anniversary of emperor Augustus. A quote was used: ‘Italians, you must ensure that the glories of the past are surpassed by the glories of the future.’ The fascist symbol was also incorporated into the flag. 

Another aspect of the linkage to Ancient Rome was the emphasis on creating a second empire. This extended to the school curriculum—with prayers like a wish for the resurrection of the empire. The fascist ‘New Man’ was a modern idealized Roman centurion. The project, holistically, was a source of Italian and fascist nationalism.

Associated was also the concept of spazio vitale (‘vital space’), the idea that a strong state should expand beyond natural boundaries to control areas vital to its interests. This was to include the whole Mediterranean area, and northern and eastern Africa.

In Europe, he also wanted to control south-eastern states like Yugoslavia and Albania. By WW2, he also wanted Greecen, Romania, Bulguria, and Hungary. 

Domination of Africa would secure Italian dominance of the Mediterranean.

The spazio vitale area was to be divided into piccolo spazia (small space) for only Italians, and grande spazio (large space) for other nations. This would create a new imperial Italy modelled after the Ancient Roman empire.

However, outside of the Corfu incident, Mussolini avoided aggressive foreign policy until 1933. This was due to the weakness of his military and political position, as well as the strength of foreign countries. 

German nationalism before 1933

Germany also only became unified in 1871.

German unification

Before 1871, Germany was >250 separate states linked only by language and belonging to the Holy Roman Empire.

• some large, ex. Prussia

• most small

• divided by religion

The French Revolution and Napoleon’s conquest of large parts of the ‘German’ region of the Holy Roman Empire resulted in the emergence of early German nationalism.

After Napoleon’s defeat, Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia met at the Congress of Vienna to redraw the map of Europe [1814-15]. The Congress accepted the creation of small German states as part of a German Confederation with a Bundestag for diplomatic meetings between states. This was supervised by Austria.

German nationalism was suppressed by Austrian authorities after 1815, and in 1820 the Austrians pressured the Bundestag into passing Carlsbad Decrees to establish tighter controls on universities and censorship. This repression continued until the 1930s.

There was much division on German nationalism, some believed in a big Germany unifying Austria and southern states, while others supported small Germany based on enlarging Northern Germany. There was also division on what political system it should follow: liberal democracy or monarchy.

German nationalism was led by Prussia in 1934 in the formation of a free trade association, which eventually expanded to join all German states. However, some only saw this as economic agreement rather than political union.

1859, the first Nationalist Association was formed, although there was no effective nationalist political movement.

The emergence of a German nation was caused by Prussia with Chancellor Bismarch’s determination to end the German Bund, establishing a North German Confederation in 1867. This also led to increasing acceptance of militarism and expansionism.

After defeating France in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71, the German Empire was formed as a heavily militarized state in 1871.

German militarism and imperialism before 1914

The new German Empire had little clear natural borders, which brought to question the matter of securing borders. With the threat of France, Germany sought increasing militarism. They also sought to expand overseas for economic and strategic reasons.

The armed forces continued to develop without interference from a civilian government, and militarism continued to spread. Governments also got more militarized.

After 1871, German nationalism focused on imperialistic expansion into Africa and Asia. However until 1884, Bismarck was uninterested in colonial expansion, although the public pressed for it.  In 1884, Bismarck gave the go-ahead to expand in Africa and the Pacific.

However, the economic cost of expansion rarely outweighed financial and diplomatic costs, so by 1889 Bismarck stopped expansion. This caused conflict with Kaiser WiIlmhelm II, which resulted in his forced resignation. Wilhelm took hold of foreign policy and expanded the German navy, causing tensions with Britain, while breaking the alliance with Russia. Thus, WW1 was provoked.

Impact of WW1 and Peace Treaties (1914-19

Initially there was lots of nationalist support for WW1, but the failure of the Schlieffen Plan (to quickly destroy France and then respond to Russia, avoiding 2-fronts) led to massive failures.

• British Expeditionary Force helped France

• Russia mobilized too quick

• April 1917, US joins Triple Entente

• Aug 1918, counter-offensive

With these failures, the German General Staff gave power to a civilian government to avoid the army being blamed, and then encouraged surrender — leading to armistice in Nov 1918.

However, the peace treaty was assumed to be based on the Fourteen Points given by US President Woodrow Wilson in Jan 1918, which would not be punitive and would honor self-determination. However, in Paris in Jan 1919, it was obvious they would be forced to sign a harsh treaty, as no German representatives were present while Allies made the Treaty of Versailles. 

After the Treaty was formed, they initially refused to sign, but were informed by the Army that they couldn’t stop an Allied invasion. Thus, they reluctantly signed. 

The terms were very harsh:

• restriction on army and navy size

• Germany loses land to Poland, France, Belgium, Denmark

• 10% land in Europe

• 12.5% of popn

• 16% of coalfields

• 50% of iron and steel industries

• overseas colonies taken away

• Anschluss with Austria forbidden

• “War Guilt Clause” of total responsibility and reparations

• banned from League of Nations

German nationalism and the ‘diktat’

Up till the armistice in Nov. 1918, the German people were told that Germany was winning. Thus, they thought that the army had been backstabbed by the civilian government. Nationalists marked those that signed the armistice as ‘November criminals’. 

After the Treaty of Versailles was publicized, nationalist resentment grew from the unfair terms. It was also resented due to how they punished German people despite their lacking influence, and the lacking German representation in the creation of the treaty was viewed as ‘dictated peace’. 

This gave birth to Nazism.

German Nazism

German Nazism developed as a direct result of WW1. 

Hitler didn’t have interest in politics before 1914, but developed extreme nationalism after the war. Hitler decided the Treaty should be overturned, and so in 1924 he wrote Mein Kampf to define his political views and aims. 

Nazism was very similar to Fascism in:

• opposition to democracy, liberalism, left-wing political parties

• expansionism

• lebensraum (like spazio vitale)

• aggressive expansionism

• policies to increase birth rate for sufficient soldiers

However, Nazism focused on European expansion rather than colonial expansion. 

Nazism and German Nationalism after 1918

In Bavaria, an extreme right-wing government came to power after a social revolution in 1918-1919. Here, Hitler joined the German Workers Party, which was extremely nationalist despite its name. He emerged as an effective speaker and got the party renamed to the Nationalist Socialist German Workers Party in 1920, then got it to push for the 25-point programme.

The programme called for:

• overturning Treaty of Versailles

• uniteing German-speakers into a German Reich

• right-wing nationalism

• corporatism

• anti-Semitism

In Nov. 1923, Hitler tried to imitate Mussolini with a “March on Berlin”, but failed and was known as the Beer Hall Putsch. While he was imprisoned for this, he used this time to expand on

5.2 What was the impact of economic issues on expansionist foreign policies in Italy and Germany?

By 1933, both Italy and Germany experienced economic problems due to WW1 and the Depression. Thus, in the 1930s, expansionist foreign policy offered a quick solution to acquire more resources and offset domestic economic problems.

The Italian Economy 1900-33

There were various problems: WW1 & Great Depression, earlier problems, and impacts of fascist economic policy.

Economic division before 1914

Significant economic divisions existed in the early 20th century between the North and South due to climate and geography differences.

The North had industry that the South didn’t.

The North also employed better farming techniques and machinery, while the South used labor.

Most land in the South was owned by landlords.

Economic impact of WW1

WW1 caused national debt to rise from 16bil lira to 85bil. 

The printing of banknotes to remedy the debt caused 400% inflation from 1915-18.

• destroyed middle class savings

• reduced landlord rent incomes

• caused real wages of workers dropping 25%

• worsened by high unemployment

• war industries closed & 2.5 million soldiers demobilized

Furthered economic division due to industry in North

Hurt agriculture in South due to peasants being conscripted

South was promised land reform after war to make up for losses & avoid attraction of socialism.

Effect of fascist economic policy 1922-31

Mussolini didn’t understand economics but knew it was important, so he sought autarky. He launched a bunch of battles to try and achieve autarky.

Reasons	Aims	Impacts
Battle over the Southern Problem (1924)
widespread poverty in Southern Italy	promised to build thousands of new villages in Sicily and the south	attempted to destroy the Mafia
Battle for Grain (1925)
response to poor harvest & consequent increase in grain import	aimed to get Italian farmers to grow more cereals (esp. wheat) reduce dependence on foreign import	import controls ensured inefficient farmers in the South could continue farming without modernizing more land given for growing grain  - done through ploughing pasture land, olive & citrus orchards, vineyards medals awarded for production & stories of winning farmers publicized mechanization of wheat farming over maize in the North increased usage of tractors and fertilizers benefited industrial firms dealing with vehicles, rubber, and chemicals
Battle for Land (1926)
increase available amount of farmland	drain marshes and swamps	marshes and swamps drained (ex. Pontine Marshes by Rome) est. of small farms financed by public funds - creates work for unemployed
Battle for Lira (Aug. 18 1926)
value of Italian currency dropped	restore value abroad & increase Italian prestige	lira was revalued allowed Italy to continue importing coal and iron for arms and shipbuilding

They were not successful and inconsistent. 

• No villages were built for the Battle over the Southern Problem.

• Battle for Grain doubled cereal production by 1939 to grant self-sufficiency but resulted in needing to import olive oil and exports (fruit, wine, cattle, sheep) dropped.

• Battle for Land only reclaimed significant area of the Pontine Marshes.

• Battle for the Lira artificially raised the value of the lira but caused declining exports and increasing unemployment. Car exports were hit, and a recession was started which got worse by the Great Depression.

They intended to achieve autarky but caused more problems than they solved.

Impact of the Great Depression

The worst years for Italy were 1931-7. 

After the Depression, Mussolini began to do state intervention. 

When the Depression hit, he started interfering, such as encouraging job sharing schemes.

The effects of the Depression:

• 1930, Mussolini had to drop claims that the regime improved living standards of working-class

• 1931, Mussolini’s gov’t used public money to help prevent collapse of banks and industries impacted by Depression

• 1933, employment rose past 2 million, and millions more suffered underemployment

• 30% lost labor jobs in agriculture

• women forced to give jobs to men

• migration to the city was limited to prevent spread of unemployment which made countryside worse

In 1933, the Institute of Industrial Reconstruction was set up. It took over unprofitable industries, becoming a massive state company by 1939 with control over many industries—iron and steel, merchant shipping, electrical, telephone systems.

The effects of the Depression pushed Mussolini to adopt more protectionism and increase push towards autarky. This was furthered in 1935 when the League of Nations imposed economic sanctions after the invasion of Abyssinia.

After Mussolini involved Italy in more wars, the problems caused by the push for autarky increased.

There were some achievements:

• 1940, industrial production increase by 9%

• industry overtook agriculture as largest proportion of GNP

• imports dropped significantly from 1928-39

The end result of fascist economic policy was not modernization or better productivity, and Italy was slow to recover, showing weaknesses by WW2.

Chapter 6 - Germany and Italy’s Actions

Timeline & Overview

Year	Event	Description
1924	Feb: Pact of Rome between Italy and Yugoslavia	- after Corfu Incident 1923, Italy wanted peaceful foreign policy and cooperation with UK & FR - Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor changed European diplomacy as he wanted to challenge the Treaty of Versailles - 1934, Hitler’s position was secured and he began to make an increasingly aggressive foreign policy - July 1934, he turned to Austria and tried to form union with Austria - this was forbidden by peace treaties and Mussolini cock-blocked this - April 1935, Mussolini joined Uk and FR in the Stresa front to limit Nazi Germany’s ambitions - After Oct 1935 occupation of Abyssinia, Italy moved away from UK and FR so the Stresa Front collapsed - Hitler moved to improve relations — March 1936 he reoccupies the Rhineland during the Abyssinian Crisis - against the Treaty of Versailles but not opposed by UK & FR - After re-occupying Rhineland, Hitler’s foreign policy got increasingly expansionist  - Spanish Civil War — Ger and Italy intervened on side of right-wing nationalist rebels - Hitler and Mussolini signed Rome-Berlin Axis - 1938, more Germany expansion - Anschluss w/ Austria - Sept, Munich Conference gave Hitler the Czech Sudetenland - spring 1939, invasion of Czechoslovakia - Italy occupied Albania - Ger and Italy moved closer in May with Pact of Steel - Aug 1939, signing of Non-Agression Pact with USSR - Ger turns expansionist aims on Poland
1932	Feb: World Disarmament Conference Begins
1933	Jan: Hitler appointed chancellor of Ger Oct: Ger leaves Disarmament Conference & LoN Nov: Ger begins re-armament
1934	Jan: World Disarmament Conf. fails ; Nazi Germany makes Pact with Poland Jul: Hitler attempts Anschluss with Austria Sep: USSR joins LoN
1935	Mar: Hitler announces Ger rearmament and reintroduces conscription Apr: Stresa Front formed (UK—FR—Italy) vs. Ger OctL Italy invades Abyssinia
1936	Mar: Ger re-occupies Rhineland Jul: Ger & Italy intervene in Spanish Civil War Oct: Rome-Berlin Axis (Ger—Italy) Nov: Comintern Pact (Ger—JP)
1937	Oct: Italy signed Anti-Comintern Pact (Rome—Berlin—Tokyo Axis) Dec: Italy leaves LoN
1938	Mar: Anschluss between Ger and Austria Sept: Munich Conference
1939	Mar: Hitler invades rest of Czechoslovakia Apr: Italy annexes Albania May: Pact of Steel (Ger—Italy) Aug: Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

6.1 How did Germany challenge post-war settlements, 1933-38?

6.2 What were the main aspects of Italy’s foreign policy, 1935-39?

Before 1935, Mussolini wanted to make Italy a great power in the Mediterranean with an African empire to achieve spazio vitale (living space).

His actions were based on the idea of empire of Ancient Rome.

His foreign policy had 3 distinct periods:

• 1922-35 — mainly peaceful

• 1935-39 — more aggressive, alliance with Ger

• 1940-45 — WW2

Fascist diplomacy 1922-35

Initially, Mussolini was not in a position to achieve his aims by force. Why?

Yugoslavia blocked Italian ambitions along the Adriatic while Britain and France controlled strategically important areas in the Mediterranean, Africa, and Middle East.

Emerging expansionist aims 1922-33

His early use of force in the Corfu Incident 1923 increased his support in Italy and showed the weakness of Italy in front of BR-FR opposition. Criticism from the LoN and Conference of Ambassadors forced him to withdraw. 

Therefore he stuck to peaceful diplomacy and passive foreign policy. 

In Feb 1924, he signed the Pact of Rome with Yugoslavia which accepted Italian occupation of Fiume (which Italy wanted in peace treaties of 1919-20). 

In May 1925, he signed the Locarno Pact and Italian interests in Albania were pursued via economic penetration. 

In 1926, talks with Britain and France resulted in Kenya and Egypt being given to Italian colonies of Somaliland and Libya.

However, Mussolini also used non-diplomatic methods to increase Italian influence in Europe. He backed an Albanian chieftain in 1929 who seized power and signed a Treaty of Friendship with Italy. He also supported extreme nationalists in Ger, Bulgaria, Austria, Yugoslavia.

1928, he signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact which outlawed war. However, he dislikes the French ‘Little Entente” in 1927 with Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Romania, as it blocks Italian expansion in the Balkans. France’s position in North Africa also blocks expansion.

1929, his policy begins to change as he calls for revision of the 1919-20 peace treaties and plots with Hungary to overthrow the King of Yugoslavia. At an international peace conference in London, he unsuccessfully demanded that the Italian navy should be as big as Britain and France’s.

1931-34 was the turning point.

• 1931, Mussolini notices ineffectiveness of LoN over Japanese aggression in Manchuria

• 1933, Italian arms deliveries to Austrian terrorist groups in Hungary (who wanted freedom from Yugoslavia) were exposed 

• disturbs BR — FR

• Little Entente is strengthened

Nazi Germany and the Stresa Front 1933-35

1933, Hitler became chancellor of Germany. While he was also a fascist, Mussolini distrusted him, so Mussolini formed the Stresa Front to prevent German expansion.

Mussolini saw Austria as an Italian sphere of influence.

He proposed the Four-Power Pact of Italy, Ger, BR, FR. 

1933, he signed non-aggression with USSR.

1934, he tries to get closer to Austria and Hungary.

July 1934, Hitler tries to take over Austria but Mussolini prevents this by placing troops on the Austro-Italian border.

Jan 1935, he forms the Stresa Front to block German expansion

• he also thought this would make his invasion of Abyssinia less opposed

Aggression and fascist ‘crusades’ 1935-7

Italy’s first expansionist war was meant to recreate the Roman empire, centered around the Mediterranean, Adriatic Sea, and Africa.

Oct 3 1935, 500,000 Italian troops invaded Abyssinia, one of only 2 independent African states. This was the first serious act of aggression by a big European power since 1920. The invasion took place after allied foreign policy was undermined by the Anglo-German Naval Treaty on relations between the Stresa Front members.

Invasion of Abyssinia

Mussolini was making serious plans for invading Abyssinia since 1932, wanting to add it to Italy’s existing colonies in East Africa: Eritrea and Somaliland. The pretext was a border clash in Dec. 1934. Italian forces in Italy’s colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland were built up, and invasion was increasingly imminent. 

The invasion began on Oct 3, with some early successes: Italian troops had tanks and bombers vs. Abyssinian spears. However, poor communication and other inadequacy of the Italian troops caused the invasion to slow down. It was a one-sided war.

Mussolini correctly guessed that BR and FR would not seriously object as they drew up the Hoare-Laval Pact, offering Italy two-thirds of Abyssinia, but this deal collapsed after hostile public opinion. 

The LoN imposed sanctions, but their protests didn’t do much. Thus, by May 1936, Italian forces captured the Capital and then merged with other states to form Italian East Africa. Therefore, Mussolini’s first steps to carve out a new Roman Empire were successful. 

However, the conquest was not beneficial — Abyssinia had poor agricultural land and little raw materials. The invasion also alienated BR and FR and increased Italy’s dependence on Ger.

Jan 1936, Mussolini let Hitler know that he no longer objected to Anschluss, and hinted that he wouldn’t support LoN actions against Germany in case of the occupation of the Rhineland.

Mar 6 1936, he followed Hitler’s lead in withdrawing from the LoN and got closer with Nazi Germany. BR and FR got closer together.

Spanish Civil War

Pro-German policy was confirmed July 1936 after Mussolini agreed to intervene in the Spanish Civil War with Hitler to help General Franco overthrow the democratically-elected Popular Front government. As Franco was supported by the Pope and Church, Mussolini easily persuaded Italians of the rightness of intervention as a crusade against communism.

Fascist Italy sent 70,000 troops, 600 planes, 1000 tanks, 90 warships—overall costing over 10 billion lire. This was much more than Hitler’s commitment. 6000 Italian soldiers were killed.

The venture brought very little results and hurt Italy’s military capacity for several years.

Alliance with Nazi Germany

Mussolini noted the reluctance of BR and FR to risk war over the Ger and Italy intervention in the Spanish Civil War.

As the Spanish intervention widened the breach between Mussolini and BR/FR, Mussolini decided to ally with Hitler. 

Oct 1936, Italy and Ger signed the Rome-Berlin Axis agreement.

• confirmed join opposition to communism

• divided Europe into spheres of influence

• Italy — the Mediterranean and Balkans

Dec 1937, Mussolini joined GER and JP in the Anti-Comintern Pact, intending to oppose communism and the USSR.

Italy and the road to war, 1938-39

Mar 1938, the fascist alliance (anti-comintern pact) allowed Hitler to carry out Anschluss with Austria, and Mussolini allowed it to happen.

HOWEVER

Apr 1938, Mussolini signed pact of friendship with BR and resisted military alliance with GER

Sept 1938, he tried to act as a peacemaker in the Munich Conference between GER/BR/FR

• however ordered navy prep for war vs. BR in the Mediterranean

• Munich Conference convinced Mussolini that BR and FR wouldn’t take action against German expansion

March 1939, Hitler’s takeover of Czechoslovakia following occupation of Sudetenland

• lack of response

Invasion of Albania, April 1939

Apr 1939, Mussolini annexed Albania

• before WW1, Italy had joined with Austria-Hungary to form Albania

• switched sides and occupied Austria 1915 but were kicked out by 1920

Italian nationalists saw Albania as strategically important in allowing Italy to control access to the Adriatic Sea and extend into the Balkans

1922, Mussolini appointed PM and pushed for Italian interests in Albania

1925, economic penetration

1926-7, Italy signed treaties w/ Albania to establish a defensive alliance

• Albania got more loans from Italy

• Albanian army trained by Italian instructors

1931, King Zog I of Albania refused to renew the 1926 treaty with Italy

1934, trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece

• annoyed Mussolini, who took action inspired by Hitler’s invasion of Czechoslovakia

Mar 25 1939, Italy issued ultimatum to Albanian gov’t 

• money in exchange for Italian occupation

Apr 7 — refused, invasion begins

Apr 12 — Albania captured

Italy’s invasion force:

• 100,000 troops

• 600 aircraft & naval units

• Italian military instructors sabotaged

However, Italy still struggled, which was a bad omen.

Pact of Steel, May 1939

May 1939, Mussolini & Hitler signed a formal military alliance

• Italy fight on Germany side if war breaks out

• Mussolini warned Hitler that Italy needed 3 years of peace to recover from Abyssinia and Spain

Sept 1939, WW2

• Italy didn’t join in until May 1940 

Chapter 7 - International Responses to German and Italian Expansionism

Time	Event	Response/Description
1925	Locarno Treaty	- 1920s, promising developments regarding upholding 1919-20 peace treaties and maintaining peace in Europe - Locarno Treaty, Kellogg-Briand Pact - 1920s, diplomatic agreements made mostly by LoN - 1933, Great Depression affected Europe so LoN became irrelevant - BR and FR couldn’t agree on reacting to the increasing violations to peace treaties - BR: appeasement became main approach - Italy and GER got increasingly aggressive after 1935, despite attempts to revise peace treaties - BR and FR took no real actions - BR and FR never opposed expansionism and USSR excluded, so GER and Italy were happy to continue after 1936 - 1939, GER and Italy believed BR and FR would fail to protect Polish independence
1928	Kellogg-Briand Pact
1933	Oct: GER leaves Disarmament Conference and LoN
1934	Jul: Hitler attempts Anschluss with Austria Sept: USSR leaves LoN
1935	Mar: Hitler reintroduces conscription Apr: Stresa Front Oct: Italy invades Abyssinia Nov: LoN applies sanctions vs. Italy
1936	Mar: GER reoccupies Rhineland July: Intervention in Spanish Civil War Oct: Rome-Berlin Axis Nov: Comintern Pact (GER-JP)
1937	May: Neville Chamberlain becomes BR PM Oct: Italy signs Anti-Comintern Pact (Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis) Dec: Italy leaves LoN
1938	Mar: Anschluss with Austria Sept: Munich Conference
1939	Mar: GER invasion of Czechoslovakia ; Lithuania gives Memel to Nazi Germany Apr: Italian annexation of Albania May: Pact of Steel

7.2 What was the international response to Italian aggression 1935-6?

Italy expected some LoN opposition, but was not seriously opposed. Thus, Italy got more expansionist and closer to GER. This would have serious repercussions.

Italy’s Invasion of Abyssinia, 1935